Effects of mandala coloring on alpha brain activity and anxiety symptoms among students at Universiti Sains Malaysia: a randomized controlled trial

Full Text

INTRODUCTION

Mental disorders are the third leading cause of non-fatal disease burden in Malaysia, following diabetes mellitus and asthma [1]. Among these, anxiety disorders contribute substantially to the overall burden, with prevalence estimates in the Malaysian population ranging from 41.7% to 67.6% [2, 3]. These conditions disproportionately affect young people; among individuals aged 15–29, anxiety disorders rank as the fourth leading cause of disease burden, accounting for 5.4% of the total burden within this age group [1]. This age range largely corresponds to the young adult population, which includes university students. Consistent with these trends, studies have reported high psychological distress among Malaysian university students, with 30.7% experiencing depression, 55.5% reporting anxiety, and 16.6% suffering from stress [4]. Recent evidence further indicates that anxiety remains highly prevalent in this population: a study involving 388 Malaysian university students reported an overall anxiety prevalence of 66.2%, with one-third of affected individuals exhibiting severe symptoms [5]. Local studies have identified multiple factors contributing to psychological distress among students, including excessive workload, high self-expectations, difficulty comprehending course material, and insufficient practical skills [5, 6]. Given the high prevalence of anxiety in this population, there is a need for accessible and effective interventions.

In recent years, art therapy has gained increasing recognition as a therapeutic approach for various mental health conditions and has also been shown to promote emotional well-being among healthy individuals across diverse age groups and demographic backgrounds [7, 8]. It encompasses various artistic modalities, including visual art, music, dance, and theater, with the aim of enhancing emotional, social, and cognitive functioning in both individuals and groups [8, 9]. Evidence suggests that art therapy serves as a mindfulness-based intervention that facilitates anxiety reduction, stress management, emotional regulation, and self-expression [10–13]. These therapeutic effects are thought to arise from the promotion of a relaxed and focused mental state, the externalization of unconscious emotions and cognitions, and the provision of a psychologically safe environment for emotional expression and memory processing [14]. Mandala coloring is a specific form of mindfulness-based art activity that integrates elements of artistic creation and mindfulness meditation, with an emphasis on present-moment awareness [15]. Within this framework, it can be conceptualized in three forms: meditation, drawing, and coloring. Evidence suggests that mandala coloring is beneficial not only for clinical populations but also for non-clinical groups. For example, medical students engaging in mandala coloring have demonstrated increased emotional awareness [16], while brief mandala coloring interventions have been shown to enhance attention and interest among school-aged children [17]. More recent studies have reported improvements in mother–infant relationships through breastfeeding among participants in mandala-based interventions [18], as well as reductions in anxiety symptoms among women experiencing menopausal symptoms following mandala coloring [19].

From a neurophysiological perspective, drawing activities have been shown to stimulate alpha-frequency activation in both artists and non-artists [20]. Alpha brain activity (8–12 Hz) is the most dominant rhythm in the adult human brain and is associated with relaxation, self-regulation, memory, visual processing, and creativity [21–23]. Functionally, alpha activity is thought to inhibit irrelevant information through synchronized postsynaptic potentials [23, 24]. Importantly, higher alpha power has been linked to lower anxiety levels, whereas reduced alpha activity is associated with elevated anxiety [25]. Alpha activity is particularly prominent during meditation, and meditation-related practices have been shown to increase frontal alpha amplitude, synchronous alpha activity, and coherence [26]. Additionally, experienced meditators exhibit higher prefrontal and parietal alpha power even during sleep [27], and mindfulness-based interventions have been associated with increased alpha activity in brain regions related to stress [28]. Furthermore, frontal alpha activity has been closely linked to executive functions such as attentional regulation and cognitive control [22, 29]. Despite growing evidence supporting the psychological benefits of mandala coloring, its underlying neurophysiological mechanisms remain insufficiently understood. In particular, changes in brain activity following mandala coloring have not been extensively investigated. Therefore, this study aimed to examine the effects of mandala coloring on alpha brain activity and anxiety symptoms among students at Universiti Sains Malaysia.

METHODS

Study design

This study employed a parallel-group randomized controlled trial design with two arms: mandala coloring (intervention) and blank-circle coloring (control). Pre- and post-assessments of anxiety symptoms and electroencephalography (EEG) measurements were conducted on the same day. The trial is reported in accordance with Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials (CONSORT) 2010 guidelines [30].

Participants

A convenience sampling strategy was employed for the purpose of this study. Participants were recruited from Universiti Sains Malaysia through advertisements distributed via email and social media platforms. Interested individuals who met the study’s inclusion criteria were invited to scan the QR code on the advertisement poster to access an online screening questionnaire. The Malay version of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales-21 (DASS-21) questionnaire was used as a screening instrument to identify individuals with moderate to severe anxiety, defined as an anxiety subscale score of 10 or higher [31]. Those who met the criteria were invited to join the study and were subsequently randomized into either the intervention or control group.

Setting

The study was conducted in a quiet room at the School of the Arts, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia.

Eligibility criteria

Eligibility was determined prior to study participation using a self-report screening questionnaire. Participants were included if they were students of Universiti Sains Malaysia aged between 18 and 25 years, were healthy young adults from any school, had a DASS-21 anxiety score of 10 or higher, were able to provide informed consent, and were willing to participate in this study. We excluded those who had self-reported any mental illness or psychiatric disorder, had a neurological disorder, were taking anti-anxiety medication or other central nervous system medications, had a traumatic brain injury, a color-vision deficiency, or a musculoskeletal disorder affecting the dominant upper limb.

Intervention and comparator

The control group was assigned to color a blank circle on A4 paper. The intervention group received a pre-designed mandala for coloring. Mandala art images were obtained online¹ and selected for their simple, geometric designs that promote a sense of calm and relaxation, consistent with those used in previous studies [32–34]. The images were printed on A4-sized paper. Participants completed the coloring activities individually in the same room but in separate sessions, thus they were not aware of the materials assigned to the other condition. Both groups were provided with a standardized set of 12 colored pencils, comprising red, orange, yellow, light green, dark green, light blue, dark blue, peach, pink, purple, brown, and black.

Procedures

Upon arrival, participants were briefed on the study procedures, including the tasks involved, the duration of the session, and their right to withdraw from the study, and provided written informed consent prior to participation. To measure brain activity, participants wore an EEG cap consisting of 16 electrodes. Before the intervention, participants completed the Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI) self-report questionnaire [35], and followed by a three-minute resting-state EEG recording to establish baseline brain activity. After the baseline assessment, each participant was provided with a set of colored pencils and instructed to complete the task within 20 minutes. The researchers signaled the start and end of the coloring session. Immediately following the coloring activity, brain activity was monitored for a further three minutes, after which participants again completed the BAI questionnaire to evaluate their anxiety levels post-intervention. The total study duration for each participant was approximately 50 minutes. The same procedure was followed for participants in the control group.

Measurements

Depression Anxiety Stress Scales 21 Malay

This 21-item questionnaire was designed to evaluate the emotional conditions of depression, anxiety, and stress. Each sentence was rated on a four-point scale ranging from zero to three (0=“Did not apply to me at all”, 1=“Applied to me to some degree, or some of the time”, 2=“Applied to me to a considerable degree, or a good part of time”, and 3=“Applied to me very much, or most of the time”) [36]. It is a validated self-report instrument for use in the Malaysian population, including local university samples [37, 38].

Beck Anxiety Inventory Malay

Anxiety was measured using the 21-item Malay version of the Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI-Malay), a reliable and validated self-report instrument for assessing anxiety symptoms in a large Malaysian sample comprising university students, community individuals and clinical populations [35]. The questionnaire requires approximately five to ten minutes to complete. A score ranging from zero to seven is considered normal or asymptomatic, scores from 8 to 15 indicate mild anxiety, scores from 16 to 25 signify moderate anxiety, and scores from 26 to 63 represent severe anxiety. Elevated scores suggest a potentially problematic level of anxiety [35].

Electroencephalography

A non-invasive device was used to measure brain activity before and after a coloring session. A 16-channel g.Nautilus EEG cap (g.tec medical engineering GmbH, Austria) was used to record the EEG data at a sampling rate of 500 Hz. The electrode array encompassed the frontal, central, parietal, and occipital regions: F7, F3, Fz, F4, F8, FC5, FC1, FC2, FC6, C3, Cz, C4, Pz, O1, Oz, and O2.

Outcomes

The DASS-21 was used solely as a screening tool prior to enrolment. The primary outcome of this study was absolute EEG alpha power (8–12 Hz), recorded immediately before and after the coloring session. The secondary outcome of this study was anxiety symptoms, measured pre- and post-intervention using BAI-Malay. Both outcomes were measured in the same sequence for participants in the intervention and control groups.

Sample size

The sample size was estimated a priori using G*Power 3.1 [39]. The primary endpoint for power estimation was the TIME × GROUP interaction on absolute alpha power, analyzed using a mixed-design ANOVA (within–between interaction). We adopted the effect size used in the previous study, which corresponds to a moderate ANOVA effect size (f=0.25) [40]. With α=0.05 and desired power of 0.80, the minimum required sample size was n=44 (22 participants per group). To account for potential dropout, we targeted a sample of 60 participants, which exceeded the minimum number needed.

Randomization

The participants were randomized into two groups via an online random number generator²: the intervention group and the control group with 30 participants each. The author (C.X.N) enrolled participants, obtained informed consent, and assigned each participant to either the intervention or control group. Allocation concealment was not implemented because the researcher who enrolled participants had access to the randomization output at the time of assignment.

Blinding

Blinding of participants was not feasible due to visible differences between interventions (mandala vs. blank circle).

Data analysis

EEG data pre-processing

EEG data pre-processing was performed using EEGLAB 14.1.2 [41] in the Matlab environment version R2020a (The Mathworks, Inc., Natick, MA). The EEG data were transformed from *.hdf5 to *.edf format prior to import into EEGLAB for the next analysis. Upon importing the dataset, event markers and channel positions were assigned to the dataset. The recorded EEG signals were divided into two datasets: a blank data set and a mandala dataset, each consisting of three minutes before and three minutes after the measurement. Each data set was processed using a finite impulse response bandpass filter with a frequency range of 0.5–40 Hz, followed by manual artifact rejection. Following the rejection of artifacts, the EEG data were subjected to average referencing and independent component analysis to reduce the number of artifacts. The cleaned EEG data were analyzed using the Fieldtrip software [42]. The absolute alpha power was derived using the Fast Fourier Transform. Subsequently, the data underwent further analysis with SPSS.

Statistical analysis

Data were analyzed using IBM SPSS Statistics Version 29³. Absolute alpha power was extracted from each electrode. To represent regional brain activity, alpha power was averaged across Fz, FC1, and FC2 electrodes for the frontal region; electrode Cz was used to represent the central region; electrode Pz represented the parietal region, and electrodes Oz, O1, and O2 were averaged to represent the occipital regions. The data were screened and cleaned prior to analysis. Extreme outliers (z scores of ± 3.0) were replaced with missing values. The Shapiro–Wilk test was used to test the data distribution, and non-parametric tests were used if the normality assumption was violated. A mixed-design ANOVA was conducted to examine changes in brain activity and BAI Malay scores over time (2 levels: Pre vs. Post) across different brain regions (4 levels: Frontal, Central, Parietal and Occipital) and to evaluate their interactions with the between-subject group (2 levels: Mandala vs. Blank). For all ANOVAs, sphericity was assessed using Mauchly’s test of sphericity, and the Greenhouse–Geisser correction was applied when the assumption of sphericity was violated. Bonferroni correction was used to adjust for multiple comparisons, and subsequent post hoc comparisons were performed using paired t-tests. Bonferroni corrections were applied only to follow-up pairwise comparisons and all ANOVA p-values reported are unadjusted. Unless otherwise specified, all descriptive statistics are presented as mean ± standard deviation. The significance level was set at p≤0.05.

The sensitivity analyses were conducted to evaluate the influence of outliers. We repeated the mixed-design ANOVA on absolute alpha power including all EEG data which was originally flagged as outliers.

Ethical considerations

This study received ethical approval from the Jawatankuasa Etika Penyelidikan Manusia Universiti Sains Malaysia, the institutional Human Research Ethics Committee of Universiti Sains Malaysia (Reference: JEPeM/22080537). All participants provided informed consent in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki.

RESULTS

Participants

A total of 106 students were assessed for eligibility based on their DASS-21 anxiety scores. Of these, 46 were excluded for not meeting the inclusion criteria. Sixty eligible participants were randomized equally into the intervention group (mandala coloring, n=30) and the control group (blank-circle coloring, n=30). No participants were lost to follow-up, and all 60 randomized participants (23 males and 37 females) aged 18–25 years (M=22.97, SD=1.03) were included in the final analysis (see Figure 1). Data were collected from January to May 2023.

 

Figure 1. CONSORT diagram.

Note: BAI — Beck Anxiety Inventory; CONSORT — Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials; DASS-21 — Depression Anxiety Stress Scales-21; EEG — electroencephalography.

Source: Chang et al., 2026.

 

Intervention and comparator delivery

The intervention group comprised 12 males and 18 females, with a mean age of 21.87 years (SD=1.07). The control group comprised 10 males and 20 females with a mean age of 22.03 years (SD=0.86). Table 1 presents the characteristics of the study participants, including the mean alpha power and anxiety scores for the mandala and blank groups.

 

Table 1. Characteristics of participants in the mandala and blank groups

Characteristic	Mandala (n=30)		Blank (n=30)
	Pre-intervention	Post-intervention	Pre-intervention	Post-intervention
Age, M±SD (years)	21.87±1.07		22.03±0.86
Gender, n (%)
Male	12 (40%)		10 (33.3%)
Female	18 (60%)		20 (66.7%)
Alpha power (µV2), M±SD
Frontal	0.02±0.01	0.04±0.03	0.03±0.02	0.03±0.02
Central	0.02±0.02	0.02±0.01	0.02±0.01	0.02±0.01
Parietal	0.02±0.01	0.02±0.01	0.01±0.01	0.01±0.01
Occipital	0.02±0.01	0.03±0.02	0.02±0.01	0.03±0.03
Anxiety scores	17.94±15.32	7.57±8.76	20.07±11.59	10.63±12.06

Note: M — mean value; SD — standard deviation.

 

Effects on alpha power and anxiety scores between groups

A mixed-design ANOVA revealed no significant main effect of GROUP on alpha power, F(1; 52)=0.15, p=0.70, indicating that alpha power did not differ significantly between the mandala and blank groups. Similarly, anxiety scores showed no significant main effect of GROUP (F(1; 56)=0.44, p=0.51). These findings suggest that, on average, the two groups were comparable in terms of alpha power and anxiety levels (see Table 1).

Effects of coloring activities over time

A within-subjects analysis revealed a significant increase in alpha power from pre- to post-intervention, F(1; 52)=4.99, p=0.03. Anxiety scores also decreased significantly over time, F(1; 56)=74.909, p< 0.001. However, the interaction effect of TIME × GROUP on anxiety scores was not significant, F(1; 56)=0.03, p=0.87, suggesting that the reduction in anxiety was similar across both groups (see Figure 2).

 

Figure 2. Change in the anxiety scores before and after coloring activities in the mandala and blank groups. Error bars represent standard errors, *p< 0.05.

Source: Chang et al., 2026.

 

Regional effects on alpha power

A within-subject analysis of alpha power across brain regions showed a significant main effect of REGION, F(3; 156)=11.76, p< 0.001, indicating that alpha power differed significantly across several brain regions. The interaction effects of TIME × REGION and TIME × GROUP were not significant, with F(3; 156)=1.18, p=0.32 and F(1; 52)=1.08, p=0.30, respectively. The differences in alpha power among regions did not differ significantly between the mandala and blank groups, as shown by the non-significant interaction effect of REGION × GROUP, F(3; 156)=1.08, p=0.36. These results suggest that changes over time and differences between groups were not consistent across brain regions.

We observed a significant three-way interaction effect of TIME × REGION × GROUP, F(3; 156)=3.21, p=0.03, indicating that the change over time in the alpha power was influenced by both brain region and group. Post hoc comparisons using paired t-tests indicated that alpha power in the frontal region was significantly higher following mandala coloring, t(30)=−3.32, p=0.002 (see Figure 3).

 

Figure 3. Change in the mean absolute alpha power before and after coloring activities across brain regions. A) Mandala group; B) Blank group. Error bars represent standard errors. *p< 0.05.

Source: Chang et al., 2026.

 

Ancillary analyses

Sensitivity analyses with outliers included showed that the TIME × GROUP interaction did not reach significance (F(1; 58)=1.705, p=0.197, partial η²=0.029), and the TIME × × REGION × GROUP interaction was a non-significant trend (F(3; 174)=2.130, p=0.098, partial η²=0.035). The REGION main effect remained significant (F(3,174)=3.807, p=0.011; Greenhouse–Geisser p=0.044), indicating regional differences in alpha power irrespective of time or group.

Harms

No adverse events were reported or observed in either the mandala coloring group or the control group.

DISCUSSION

The aim of this study was to examine the effects of mandala coloring on anxiety symptoms and alpha brain activity among university students. A significant increase in alpha power was observed following the intervention, with a particularly pronounced increase in the frontal region after mandala coloring. This pattern suggests enhanced relaxation and attentional engagement, consistent with previous findings on frontal alpha activity. Although the reduction in anxiety levels did not differ significantly between the mandala and blank groups, both conditions were associated with decreases in self-reported anxiety. These results indicate that coloring, regardless of type, may serve as an effective strategy for emotion regulation and improving psychological well-being.

Our findings indicate a significant reduction in anxiety following both coloring activities, suggesting that free-form coloring is as effective as pre-designed mandala coloring in reducing self-reported anxiety. Similarly, Campenni & Hartman [43] reported that coloring can improve mood, reduce anxiety, and promote mindfulness among university students. While our results align with this general trend, no significant differences were observed between the two coloring conditions. Coloring activities have been previously reported to induce a mindfulness-like state in children, adolescents, and university students [33, 34, 44]. Furthermore, a meta-analysis of eight studies involving 578 adults showed that both mandala coloring and free drawing were effective in reducing anxiety [45]. Taken together, these findings support the interpretation that the anxiety-reducing effects may be linked to the immersive nature of the coloring process rather than the specific structure of the artwork. This interpretation is consistent with prior research indicating that engaging in art-making regardless of complexity or design can yield positive psychological outcomes [31, 36, 37, 39–41].

A recent randomized controlled trial involving older adults showed that mandalas may produce a meditation-like effect due to their circular structure, which guides attention and enhances focus [42]. One possible explanation for the absence of a significant difference between mandala coloring and blank-circle coloring in the present study may relate to differences in the psychological measures used. Previous studies commonly assessed state and trait anxiety using the State and Trait Anxiety Questionnaire (STAI) [46], which is considered more sensitive to short-term fluctuations in anxiety [15, 47–49]. In addition to measurement differences, variation in intervention duration may also contribute to differences in anxiety-related outcomes. A systematic review reported that the number of sessions ranged between one and 12, with intervention durations spanning from 15 min to eight weeks, with greater improvements generally observed in multi-session interventions [50]. Similarly, a randomized controlled trial found that a six-week mandala coloring program (20–30 minutes per session) reduced menopause-related anxiety [19]. Collectively, these findings suggest that the therapeutic effectiveness of coloring may depend on both the structure and duration of the intervention, highlighting the need for further investigation.

Our findings indicate a significant increase in alpha power over the frontal region following mandala coloring. This frontal enhancement may reflect a state of relaxed yet focused attention, consistent with previous research linking frontal alpha activity to cognitive control and attentional regulation [17, 48, 51]. Alpha oscillations have also been associated with mindfulness-related states, which involve inward-focused attention and reduced external distraction [52]. Although a previous study proposed a link between alpha activity and creative cognitive processes [53], our study did not directly assess creativity or problem-solving performance; therefore, interpretations related to creativity remain speculative and warrant further investigation. Similarly, while increased alpha activity has been associated with improved information processing and learning efficiency [54], the current findings do not provide direct evidence of academic or cognitive performance benefits.

However, the results are consistent with findings by Nabilah et al. [55], who reported that the brain’s capacity to generate alpha waves is associated with calmness and relaxation. Their study highlights that alpha brainwaves are most prominent when the brain is awake and not engaged in demanding cognitive tasks. This aligns with our methodology, in which participants’ brain activity was recorded during resting state following the coloring task. Notably, we did not observe significant alpha changes in other brain regions, such as the parietal and occipital lobes, which are primarily involved in tactile and visual processing. This pattern contrasts with previous research demonstrating greater parietal region activation during clay-based art creation, likely due to increased visual-perceptual and spatial processing demands [56]. In that context, participants engaged in touching, gripping, and rolling clay, whereas the present task involved coloring with pencil within predefined or blank circular boundaries, likely imposing lower tactile and spatial demands. These differences in materials and task characteristics may account for the observed variation in regional brain activation. Supporting this interpretation, prior studies have shown that clay sculpting and drawing with clay increase gamma power in the parietal lobe, whereas clay sculpting may decrease gamma power in the right medial frontal lobe and increase theta power [57].

From a neurophysiological perspective, changes in alpha power may reflect alterations in neuronal activity. A previous study indicates that an increase in alpha power is associated with greater synchronization of neuronal populations, a pattern also observed after transcranial alternating current stimulation (tACS), which reliably enhances alpha-band activity [58]. Subsequent findings suggest that such increases may also indicate plasticity-related neural changes in the brain [59]. Elevated alpha power has been interpreted as reflecting reduced cortical excitability or the functional inhibition of irrelevant inputs, thereby decreasing cognitive demands and promoting a relaxed state [24, 60, 61]. Overall, our findings suggest that mandala coloring may facilitate a relaxed and internally focused attentional state, as evidenced by enhanced frontal alpha activity.

This study has several limitations. First, the intervention consisted of a single session, and only short-term effects were measured. Longitudinal studies incorporating multiple sessions are needed to determine whether repeated coloring produces sustained neurophysiological and psychological benefits. Second, this study focused solely on alpha brain activity. Future research may need to include additional frequency bands, such as theta and beta, to provide a more comprehensive account of the neural mechanisms underlying coloring activities. Third, the BAI may have limited sensitivity in detecting short-term changes in anxiety. Future studies might benefit from using the STAI [46], which distinguishes between transient (state) and enduring (trait) anxiety, and may be more responsive to brief interventions. Lastly, the three-way interaction in repeated-measures ANOVA (i.e., TIME x REGION x GROUP), which reached borderline significance, should be interpreted with caution and warrants further investigation.

CONCLUSION

This study demonstrated that both mandala and blank circle coloring activities were associated with short-term reductions in self-reported anxiety among university students. Additionally, mandala coloring was linked to a significant increase in frontal alpha power, potentially reflecting a relaxed and internally focused attentional state. These findings suggest that structured coloring tasks may serve as a simple and accessible approach for supporting emotional regulation in academic settings.

 

Authors’ contribution: Xin Ni Chang: conceptualization, investigation, formal analysis, writing original draft, review & editing of original draft. Mohd Faizal Mohd Zulkifly: conceptualization, formal analysis, writing original draft, review & editing of original draft. Azizah Othman: review & editing of original draft. Nasir Yusoff: review & editing of original draft. All the authors made a significant contribution to the article, checked and approved its final version prior to publication.

Funding: This work was supported by Cognitive Neuroscience Program Bench Fees (401/PPSP/E3170003).

Conflict of interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Generative AI use statement: Nothing to disclose.

 

¹ https://www.free-mandalas.net/

² https://numbergenerator.org/randomnumbergenerator

³ IBM Corp. IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows (Version 29.0.0.0) [Computer software]. 2022. Armonk, NY: IBM Corp.; 2022.

About the authors

Xin Ni Chang

School of Medical Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia

Email: faizal.zulkifly@usm.my

Master, Student, Department of Neurosciences

Malaysia, Kelantan

Azizah Othman

School of Medical Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia

Email: faizal.zulkifly@usm.my
ORCID iD: 0000-0002-6649-9209
ResearcherId: O-7271-2015

DClinPsych, Associate Professor /Clinical Psychologist, Department of Pediatrics

Malaysia, Kelantan

Nasir Yusoff

School of Medical Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia

Email: faizal.zulkifly@usm.my
ORCID iD: 0000-0003-4446-9516

PhD, Senior Lecturer, Department of Neurosciences, and Brain and Behaviour Cluster

Malaysia, Kelantan

Mohd Faizal Mohd Zulkifly

School of Medical Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia

Author for correspondence.
Email: faizal.zulkifly@usm.my
ORCID iD: 0000-0003-4925-9972
Scopus Author ID: 56816926400

PhD, Senior Lecturer/Clinical Psychologist, Department of Neurosciences, and Brain and Behaviour Cluster

Malaysia, Kelantan

References

Supplementary files